The Grand Principality of Vladimir — a Vassal of the Golden Horde

Moscow was one of many principalities of Zalesye — not of Rus’ — subordinated to the Horde tsar, and its policy was primarily determined by the necessity to survive and gain strength within the Horde’s system.

Terminology and Sources

The state that in the 15th century would be called the "Golden Horde" was referred to in 13th-century Rus’ chronicles as the "Tatars," and from the 14th century — the "Horde." Originally, "Horde" denoted the tsar’s nomadic camp as the mobile center of the state. In Horde sources, the state was called the ulus with the name of the khan. On the subordinated territories, the term "Horde" referred to the Jochid state as a whole.

The capital was Sarai (Tsaray) — the seat of the Tsar. Old Sarai (Sarai-Batu) was founded by Batu in the 1240s; in 1332, Khan Uzbek moved the capital to New Sarai (Sarai al-Jadid).

The linguistic situation in the Horde was bilingual. The Mongols and Turks brought their languages, which became “state” languages. The numerical dominance of the Turkic ethnic group led to the gradual fading of the Mongolian language, although Mongolian remained actively used in administration until the end of the 14th century — charters to Egypt, inscriptions on coins of Tokhta, Janibek, Tokhtamysh, and the 1368 paiza of ‘Abdullah were in Mongolian.

The System of Vassal Dependence

After Batu’s campaign, a system of control was formed based on two elements: the collection of tribute ("vyhod" from the 14th century) and the Horde khan’s right to confirm local princes by issuing yarlyks for rule. A yarlyk was a law granting the right to govern a territory.

Notably, the Horde ruler was called "tsar" on the subordinated lands. Previously, this title was used only for the Byzantine emperor. As the Galician chronicler writes about Danylo Romanovych: "His father was tsar in the land of Rus’... the son did not receive that honor" — because he became a vassal of the Horde tsar. The idea of a tsar as a ruler without an overlord was thus asserted.

The restoration of the Roman (Byzantine) Empire in 1261 did not change the situation but rather solidified it: the emperors and the Patriarch of Constantinople entered into allied and kinship relations with the Horde, thereby legitimizing this state's position in Eastern Europe.

The Emergence of the Principality of Moscow

The Principality of Moscow as an independent entity appeared in the 1270s. The first prince of Moscow was Daniil, the younger son of Alexander Nevsky (born in 1261). The very emergence, territorial growth, and strengthening of Moscow occurred within and thanks to the Horde’s system of governance and in close connection with it.

The Moscow–Tver Rivalry in the Horde Context

The Conflict of 1368–1372

In 1368, Prince Mikhail Aleksandrovich of Tver was invited to Moscow for negotiations and was arrested ("captured"). When news of the imminent arrival of a Horde envoy reached Moscow, an agreement was signed with Mikhail and he was released — fear of the Horde’s wrath was the decisive factor.

In 1370, Mamai installed a new khan, Muhammad-Bulek, on the throne. Mamai issued Mikhail a yarlyk for the Grand Principality of Vladimir, but the Muscovites prevented him from exercising his rights, forcing him to flee to Lithuania.

The Bargaining for Yarlyks

In early 1371, Mikhail again traveled to the Horde and arrived in Tver on April 10 with a yarlyk for the Grand Principality of Vladimir, accompanied by the envoy Sarykhoja. Sarykhoja sent a demand to Dmitry Ivanovich to come to Vladimir "for the yarlyk." The Moscow prince replied: "I will not come for the yarlyk, nor will I allow him to the land for the grand princedom, but your way, envoy, is clear."

Nevertheless, Dmitry traveled to the Horde. Through lavish gifts, he managed to have Mamai return the Grand Principality to him, telling Mikhail: "We gave you the grand princedom and an army, but you did not understand, saying you would take it by your own force — then sit with your match." Mikhail refused to accept a supporting Tatar army, fearing the unpopularity of such a move.

In autumn 1371, Dmitry returned from the Horde "with many debts" — the yarlyk was costly.

The Treaty of Lyubutsk, 1372

A significant event was the signing of the Lyubutsk peace treaty between Moscow and Lithuania in 1372. The treaty contained a notable feature: the Grand Principality of Vladimir was called the "patrimony" (otchina) of Dmitry Ivanovich. For the first time, it was recognized as a political inheritance.

Attempts at Emancipation under Dmitry Donskoy

The Religious-Political Conflict

In the summer of 1379, Mamai detained Mityai, Dmitry’s nominee for the metropolitan see, as he passed through the steppe. Mityai was soon released with a yarlyk. This reflected the church-political situation: Metropolitan Cyprian, Bishop Dionysius of Suzdal, and Sergius of Radonezh opposed Mamai, while Mityai advocated compromise.

In early 1379, under Mityai’s influence, the grand prince agreed to a compromise with the Horde — to pay tribute in the same amount as before the "confusion" (zamyatnya, i.e., the internal turmoil), which is why before the Battle of Kulikovo, Mamai demanded the same vyhod as under Janibek.

The Battle of Kulikovo as a Vassal Conflict

The campaign to the Kulikovo field in 1380 was a response to Mamai’s challenge against the legitimate ruler of Tsaray, the Chinggisid heir Tokhtamysh. For Dmitry, it was important to prevent Mamai’s union with Jogaila, which would have enabled Mamai to defeat Tokhtamysh. On September 8, 1380, Mamai’s vanguard was defeated.

After victory, Dmitry allowed himself to mock the "Mamai tsar" — the puppet tsar whom Mamai had installed — and styled himself as equal to the tsar of Sarai. Dmitry’s ambition to be recognized as equal to a tsar led to tragic consequences: he placed himself on the same level as Mamai and was punished for it.

The Defeat of Emancipation

In 1382, Khan Tokhtamysh approached Moscow. Dmitry fled; defense was led by the Lithuanian prince Ostei. After a three-day siege, Tokhtamysh managed to lure Ostei out by deceit, after which the Tatars stormed and sacked Moscow.

Restoration of Vassal Relations

In 1383, an agreement was reached: Dmitry would pay the vyhod from the territory of the Grand Principality of Vladimir (8,000 rubles). Moscow acknowledged its debt for the unpaid vyhod from the Principality of Moscow during Tokhtamysh’s reign after Mamai’s fall (1381/82 and 1382/83).

The tribute amounted to about 1,500 rubles from the Principality of Moscow — less than under Uzbek and Janibek, but vassal dependence was restored.

Conclusion

The Grand Principality of Vladimir, of which Moscow was a part in the 14th century, represented a typical vassal state within the system of the Golden Horde. Its policy was determined by the need to survive within that framework. The attempt at emancipation under Dmitry Donskoy ended in defeat and the restoration of vassal ties. The Battle of Kulikovo was more a conflict with the usurper Mamai than a "liberation from the Tatar yoke." Real emancipation from the Horde occurred much later, under entirely different historical circumstances.